Computer-Aided Instruction

Technology and Education

G. Bulman , R.W. Fairlie , in Handbook of the Economics of Education, 2016

2.3.2 Computer-Assisted Instruction

CAI is the use of specific software programs on computers in the classroom. 14 Frequently these programs are individualized or self-paced in order to accommodate differences in student ability or speed. CAI lends itself to evaluation using RCTs because access to software can be offered at the student or classroom level. CAI frequently targets a specific subject area that is tested before and after the software is introduced. Kulik and Kulik (1991) and Liao (1992) summarize the early education literature, which generally suggests positive effects. The evidence from economic studies is mixed and suggests that the characteristics of the intervention are important. Studies in this area differ significantly in the extent to which CAI is a substitute or a supplement to traditional instruction. Interestingly, evidence of positive effects appears to be the strongest in developing countries. This could be due to the fact that the instruction that is being substituted for is not as of high quality in these countries. 15

Rouse and Krueger's (2004) evaluation of "Fast ForWord," a language and reading program, is one of the earliest examples of evaluating a specific CAI using an RCT. They conducted a randomized study that exploited within-school, within-grade variation at four schools that serve a high fraction of nonnative English speakers in the northeastern United States. The intervention pulled students out of their otherwise scheduled classes to receive 90–100   min of individualized CAI. The instruction these students missed was not necessarily in reading and language, so treated students received supplemental instruction in this subject area as a result. Despite the construction of the experiment, which favors gains in reading and language skills, they find little to no positive effects across a range of standardized tests that should be correlated with reading and language skills. The authors argue that computers may not be as effective as traditional classroom instruction.

In a large randomized study, the U.S. Department of Education and Mathematica Policy Research (2007; 2009) evaluated six reading and four math software products for students in elementary, middle, and high school. Randomization was across teachers within the same schools. Nine of the ten products were found to have no statistically significant effect, while the tenth product (used for 4th grade reading) had a positive effect. The study also examined how usage and effects changed between the first and the second years of implementation, allowing the researchers to test if teacher experience with the products was an important determinant of outcomes. They found that usage actually decreased on average in the second year and there were no positive effects.

Some studies, however, find positive effects of CAI initiatives. Barrow et al. (2009) exploit a within-school randomization at the classroom level in three large urban districts in the United States. They find statistically significant positive effects of CAI when treated classes are taught in the computer lab using prealgebra and algebra software. They also find some evidence that the effects are larger for classrooms with greater enrollment, which is consistent with the predictions of their model of time allocation (discussed in Section 2.2). The authors note that such effects may not translate to different software or different schools, but conclude that the positive findings suggest that CAI deserves additional evaluation and policy attention especially because it is relatively easy to implement compared with other interventions.

Banerjee et al. (2007) note that the generally insignificant effects of computer interventions in developed countries may not hold in developing countries where computers may replace teachers with less motivation and training. They test an intervention in India in which trained instructors guided students through two hours of computer instruction per week, one hour of which was outside of the regular school day. Thus the intervention was a combination of guided computer instruction by a supplemental instructor and additional class time. They find that the intervention has large and statistically significant effects on math scores, but also find significant fade-out in subsequent years. However, Linden (2008) finds very different results when attempting to separate the effects of in-class "substitution" for standard instruction from out-of-school "complements." Using two randomized experiments, test score effects for 2nd and 3rd graders in India were large and negative for the in-school intervention and insignificant and positive for the out-of-school intervention. The negative in-school results could stem from the fact that the program was implemented in "well-functioning network of NGO-run schools" or that the specific software being used was ineffective. That is, both the nature of the technology and what is being substituted for are important considerations when evaluating effect sizes.

Carrillo et al. (2010) find positive effects of the Personalized Complementary and Interconnected Learning software in Ecuador. The program was randomized at the school level and provided three hours of individualized math and language instruction to treated students each week. The initiative produced positive gains on math scores and no effect on language scores. Mo et al. (2014) conduct a randomized experiment at 72 rural schools in China. The intervention provided 80 minutes of supplemental math instruction (math-based computer games) per week during what would otherwise be a computer skills class. The intervention was estimated to generate an increase in math scores of 0.17 standard deviations for both 3rd and 5th grade students. It is important to note that the instruction was supplemental both in terms of providing additional mathematics instruction and not offsetting another academic subject. 16

In an analysis of randomized interventions (both technological and nontechnological) in developing countries, Kremer et al. (2013) hypothesize that CAI tailored to each student may be the most effective. McEwan (2015) concludes that computer-based interventions in primary schools have higher average effects (0.15 standard deviations) than teacher training, smaller classes, and performance incentives. However, he makes the important point that it is "misleading" to compare effect sizes without considering cost.

Read full chapter

URL:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780444634597000051

Online Learning, Multimedia, and Emotions

Mathew Swerdloff , in Emotions, Technology, and Learning, 2016

On Overview of the Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning

Multimedia learning is a form of computer-aided instruction that uses two modalities concurrently ( Mayer, 2002). The use of visual learning (pictures, written text, animations, and videos) and verbal learning (spoken narration) as discrete channels for delivering content is different from the traditional classroom practice of lecturing to students or having students read silently. Multimedia learning can be delivered by a teacher, but is often delivered by a computer running a software application. In the text that follows, multimedia learning is included as a part of OLaM.

Essential to the cognitive theory of multimedia learning (CTML) is the notion that the brain processes information using two discrete channels and two discrete memory paths (Mayer & Moreno, 1998). According to Mayer and Moreno, the verbal (auditory) channel is responsible for processing music, sound accompanying video, and spoken words. The visual (ocular) channel processes written text, animation, still images, and moving video images. This is an essential part of the CTML and is displayed graphically in Figure 8.1.

Figure 8.1. Processing of information using the visual and verbal channels.

 Figure credit: Adin Gold.

Figure 8.1 illustrates how words can be assimilated through the ears or the eyes, depending on whether or not the words are spoken or printed. Pictures are assimilated through the eyes only.

Richard Mayer states that there are a number of distinct principles at work in multimedia learning (Moreno & Mayer, 2000). The Multiple Representation Principle indicates that meaningful learning occurs when both channels (verbal and visual) are used at the same time. This process involves the learner connecting the information from each channel and mentally cross-referencing it in working memory, which improves learning. The Spatial Contiguity Principle states that any text and visual content should be contiguous; that is they should be close to each other on the page or screen. The Temporal Contiguity Principle states that verbal and visual content should be contiguous in time; both forms of content should be presented together in time rather than asynchronously. Placing both words and pictures explaining the same content into working memory at the same time is beneficial. If this information is out of synch, the brain is less able to connect the information from the two channels. The Split Attention Principle states that when showing visual content, it is preferable to present words as verbal content rather than as text on the screen. This method is preferable because the written text is processed visually with the images, while the verbal text is processed through the ears with the verbal processing system (Mayer, 2002). The Modality Principle states that students learn better when text is presented in verbal form (as narration) rather than in visual form (as written text). Mayer suggests that this is due to the fact that when processing visual images and written text, the learner is using the same channel, resulting in cognitive overload. However, if the learner processes the same visual images with verbal text (narration), he or she is using two distinct channels and thus better able to process the information. The Redundancy Principle further refines the description of how multimedia learning is most effective. Mayer states that while two channels of content can be more effective, too much content can be counter-productive. In fact, presenting animation and narration and written text is not more effective than animation and narration alone. The final principle outlined is the Coherence Principle. Mayer states that background sounds and music take away from the learner's experience rather than adding to it. These verbal distractions can overload the auditory channel and take away from the ability to process essential auditory content.

Figure 8.2 provides a detailed overview of the CTML; it depicts content presented as words and pictures. Pictures are processed through the sensory memory via the eyes as visual stimulus and are then processed by the brain in working memory. Words can be processed in one of two ways. Spoken words are processed through the sensory memory via the ears as verbal stimulus. Written words are processed through sensory memory via the eyes as visual stimulus. This graphic is a clear example of how educators can customize delivery of instruction to maximize learning by choosing the correct channel for the words. It also helps us understand how multimedia information is processed in the brain.

Figure 8.2. Cognitive theory of multimedia learning.

 Figure credit: Adin Gold.

Mayer's theory attempts to explain how multimedia applications can be best designed and utilized. It is important to consider this when implementing instructional programs for use in schools. There are in fact other theories that explain cognitive load and processing as well, but Mayer's ideas are well accepted and solidly based on sound research, and are thus worth considering closely. In addition, cognitive load is an important consideration when examining emotions. Students who cannot learn well using OLaM will experience frustration; students who are using poorly designed multimedia, without regard for cognitive load theory, will experience emotional states that do not support learning.

The flowchart depicts how information is processed through both the verbal and visual channels through two memory spaces. Considered next is the effects of OLaM on emotions, and how emotions and technology interact in the school setting.

Read full chapter

URL:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128006498000092

Intelligent Tutoring Systems

P. Sedlmeier , in International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, 2001

Research on intelligent tutoring systems (ITS) has two aims: to provide sophisticated instructional advice on a one-on-one basis that is better than that achieved with conventional computer-aided instruction and is comparable to that of a good human tutor; and to develop and test models about the cognitive processes involved in instruction. The 'intelligence' of ITS comes from the application of artificial intelligence techniques which are used in four interacting components: The knowledge base contains the domain knowledge, the student model represents the student's current knowledge state, the pedagogical module contains suitable instructional measures which are contingent on the content of the student model, and the user interface enables an effective dialog between ITS and student. Usually, the knowledge base is the central part in the instructional process but there is a diversity of approaches that also put the emphasis on the other components. Although research on ITS has produced many interesting theoretical insights, there are relatively few ITS which are really used and there are very few which are regularly used in schools. This unsatisfactory state of affairs may be due to researchers' diversity of interests, missing evaluation studies that show the superiority of ITS, and theoretical problems with the student model. Current, more practically inclined, approaches de-emphasize the reliance on the problematic student model and put more effort in the construction of theory-based user interfaces.

Read full chapter

URL:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080430767016181

Training and Development for High Performance

Robert McCrie , in Security Operations Management (Third Edition), 2016

The Attraction of Audiovisual Materials and PowerPoint

Nothing beats grabbing the attention of a learner than dramatic streaming images. Security management facilities may possess rich resources of films and tapes for training and educational purposes. AV resources can enliven classroom learning and may be incorporated into computer-aided instruction. AV resources are valued because they can draw upon dramatic situations, actual images from past crimes or incidents, and the use of corporate officials or professional actors to convey desired messages. AV materials use voice, action, and special effects just like any Hollywood production.

AV materials have an initial high cost for acquisition, but they can be used and reused for future training iterations. Some AV programs for security use include a manual for instructors and student handouts. AV material can be exciting and informative when well produced. A few productions, however, fail to achieve their desired goals and are boring, while other films can quickly become dated and obsolete. The trainer should preview such materials and select those that best meet the needs of the workplace. Often site-specific AV materials may be developed internally on videotape or digital format at moderate cost. This has particularly been the case since the availability of camcorders and digital editing and production techniques.

PowerPoint is an immensely popular software program to quickly and easily create slideshows. First offered only on Mac in 1987, the software was purchased by Microsoft in 1990 for MS Office. The program possesses many useful applications, including training and education. PowerPoint has been described as the "best and worst thing to ever happen to meetings." This is because good ideas have slick presentations, whereas those "spurious, obvious, ill-conceived, or poorly thought out can be presented with a professional polished look."

Programs can be created with graphics, animations, and multimedia segments. If desired, the training manager can copy PowerPoint slides onto a thumb drive or CD to share with other trainers. In some learning contexts – for example, executive briefings – PowerPoint slides might be considered inappropriate, although use of computer-aided learning is an effective and well-accepted mode of learning.

Read full chapter

URL:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128023969000049

Challenges and Disappointments

C. McAvinia , in Online Learning and its Users, 2016

2.3 A History of Disappointment

A review of literature addressing the impact of technologies on education revealed that (1) disappointment is not a new response, and (2) the literature does not adequately explain why there is limited uptake and use of technologies, and therefore it might be challenged. Critiques of the extent and kinds of use of learning technologies are not new, and are in evidence from one of the earliest issues of the journal Computers and Education:

The last twenty years have witnessed much effort devoted to increasing educational effectiveness and/or efficiency through a strong alliance with technology, particularly computers. This paper attempts to demonstrate that two such application areas, instructional gaming and computer aided instruction, have been less than spectacular successes despite massive investments. The fault lies not so much in technological shortcomings, but in very incomplete theories of how these technologies abet learning. We have become so enamoured with the technologies that we have failed to recognize the potential failures to which current trends have been leading.

Neuhauser (1977, p. 187)

This paper is almost 40 years old, and explores the examples of computer-aided instruction and gaming. It suggests that the problems are twofold: first, we do not know enough about learning yet to know how best computers can assist the process. Second, once commercial interests become involved, it is difficult to keep up the discussion of how best a particular technology might be used. Six years later, Putnam (1983) comments:

For any use of technology to bring benefits we must make certain we know what we want; the miracles will not happen by themselves.

Putnam (1983, p. 36)

Putnam highlights a perceived overemphasis on case studies about the use of computers in language learning and teaching, and is highly critical of student satisfaction as a way of determining the effectiveness of a particular intervention. Nine years later, Hammond et al. (1992) explored what they regarded as a limited use of computers in teaching in UK higher education. They suggested that this was due to a lack of suitable digital materials, and a lack of institutional or departmental support. The authors were all from the Computers in Teaching Initiative (CTI) centres, and their centres were 'responsible for promoting computer-supported learning' (1992, p. 155) in their subject areas. Surveying staff, they found that lack of time, financial resources and local support were the major hindrances to using technology. But they also commented that there were few rewards for staff innovating in their practice. Few of the staff they surveyed perceived any need to develop their teaching, but the CTI programme leaders regarded technology as driving a potential change in teaching which would be fundamental:

the full implementation of this idea would have the most radical consequences for higher education. It would mean that we would be accepting responsibility for shaping the learning process.

Hammond et al. (1992, p. 161, emphasis added)

The paper notes that institutions will have to accept that technologies will not bring cost savings or quick fixes for teaching larger groups of students. Instead, a wider educational change is called for, and is the responsibility of many more people than the technologists. Such principles echo through to current strategy and underpin the drive towards changing learning and teaching practices with technologies since the end of the 1980s. This sample of papers, all published well before the year 2000, highlights issues for e-learning researchers and practitioners which remain current 15   years on from the turn of the century. These concerns may be categorised as theoretical/pedagogical, organisational and methodological.

Theoretical/pedagogical concerns:

•

The process of learning is not fully understood, and it is therefore a significant challenge to assist this process appropriately with technologies.

•

The use of technologies should be pedagogically driven.

Organisational concerns:

•

Commercial interests in educational technology complicate its development and may hinder adequate discussion of what is effective.

•

Technology has the potential to prompt educational change—and a renewed focus on teaching—on an institution-wide basis.

Methodological concerns:

•

There is an overemphasis on case studies in research about the use of computers in specific subjects or programmes.

•

There is need for appropriate research methods to measure the effectiveness of an intervention using a particular technology, and going beyond measures of student satisfaction.

Yet the fact that these issues remain current indicates that they remain unresolved. By the end of the 1990s, evaluation of the Teaching and Learning Technology Programme (TLTP) in the United Kingdom showed 'little evidence of large-scale take up or shift into mainstream teaching beyond the early innovators' (Conole, Smith, & White, 2007, p. 46), despite the earlier lessons from research. Moreover, there is a sense that we are bound to repeat a pattern of gradual adoption and underuse of new technologies (Bush, 2008). Mayes (1995), writing 20   years ago, identified this problem and suggested that it could be 'cyclical':

People who have been involved over any length of time with educational technology will recognise this experience, which seems characterised by a cyclical failure to learn from the past. We are frequently excited by the promise of a revolution in education, through the implementation of technology. We have the technology today, and tomorrow we confidently expect to see the widespread effects of its implementation. Yet, curiously, tomorrow never comes.

Mayes (1995, p. 1)

Mayes argues that the same cycle of excitement, confidence and subsequent disappointment is experienced each time a new technology appears which might have applications in the classroom. Within subject disciplines, the phenomenon has also been researched (Bush, 2008; Coleman, 2005). Language specialists decry the failure of the language laboratory to have the impact desired for it (Davies, 2001). Expectations were high for the mass educational potential of television, but reality did not meet expectations (Delbanco, 2013; Mayes, 1995). How does the literature account for these disappointing realities?

Read full chapter

URL:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780081006269000022

Effective design of learning objects

Lori S. Mestre , in Designing Effective Library Tutorials, 2012

Developing goals and the design plan

Clear goals and objectives

The design of a learning object should focus not only on the technological aspects, but also on the goals, objectives, and expectations for the learners. Setting instructional goals as a starting point will help to streamline and focus the content of the learning object and decide what is essential to include and what is not, and will help prevent content-related memory overload. In successful instruction, the content, practice activities, and assessments are all aligned with the instructional goals (Carliner, 2002). Consider what the learner should be able to do, know, or understand as a result of completing the tutorial or application. It is also important to state explicitly those goals, objectives, or learning outcomes so that the learners know what they will accomplish by spending their time completing the tutorial. Students want to know if it will be worthwhile for them to invest their time in the process. Providing a rationale also helps to make learner expectations realistic.

Somoza-Fernández and Abadal (2009) found that only 37 percent of the 80 tutorials they evaluated indicated educational objectives. They, and others (Dewald, 1999; Cox and Housewright, 2001), emphasize that goals and/or specific learning objectives should be clearly stated so that learners will have a better understanding of what is expected. This is especially important in order to accommodate subject-dependent learners who are using computer aided instruction (Kahtz and Kling, 1999). There are many models and processes that can be used to assist with the creation of goals and objectives, particularly as they link into a larger course infrastructure (Dick et al., 1999).

Good planning: storyboarding

Storyboarding can help to organize and outline the text, images, illustrations, interactive exercises, navigation, and evaluations that you will use in the sequence you visualize. By creating a storyboard – a series of sketches, flowcharts, or a mock-up – others can provide input and suggestions before too much time is invested. Storyboards can be sketched out on paper or on the computer with any program that allows text and images/drawings to be inserted. Sequences and components can be shifted around to help with clarity and purpose. Others can review this prototype to help refine or expand the layout and concepts.

For a screencasting learning object or for a video several storyboards will be needed to depict various sequences. Each one might include details such as:

■

The main concept of the sequence.

−

Break up pages into clearly defined areas; this allows students to decide which areas to focus on and which to ignore.

−

Decide where the main content or image will be (in the middle with call-outs on the right side?).

−

Minimize noise: are there contrasts between sections; is there too much text or business? Determine what information is critical for each page and what information can be put on a second level, perhaps with an indicator to "click here for more information or examples."

■

The location of the various types of navigation, index, etc.

−

Be consistent with rules and carry them from one page to the next. Create a theme so that users become familiar with what to expect (table of contents always on the left?).

−

Decide where the navigation elements, choices, or questions will be placed (at the top, bottom, side?) and be consistent.

■

Colors to be used on each page.

■

Font type, size, and color to be used for various headings, subheadings, and text. Students tend to notice text that is large and bold.

−

Create a clear visual hierarchy. The more important something is the more prominent it should be.

−

Place larger fonts, and bolder, different colors in the middle near the top.

−

Organize similar items logically (or nested underneath the header in a section of the page). This also helps with cognitive load as segmenting/chunking items together helps pre-process the page so the mind doesn't have to organize it.

■

The placement of text on the page (being consistent throughout) and if it appears initially or at what point in the sequence.

■

Graphics placement and sizes, and if they appear initially or at what point in the sequence.

■

Placement of call-out buttons and if they appear initially or at what point in the sequence.

■

Interactive exercises and if they appear initially or at what point in the sequence.

■

Indications of links that are clickable: even though designers might think that colored links are clickable, it is not always obvious. If users need to work out whether a link is a hyperlink it adds to cognitive workload, which distracts attention. Usability tests can help designers to see if students are clicking on intended links or not. If not, more obvious elements could be included, like a term that says "Enter" or "Click here" or even an arrow pointing to a term "Search." In a study carried out by Mestre (2010), certain students had difficulty when working through an interactive tutorial because they did not knowwhen they should click on a figure to make something happen nor how to get to the next page. This confusion diverted them from the message that was to be conveyed on that screen.

■

Other multimedia inclusions (such as video, audio, animation) and details of where they appear in the sequence.

■

Narration that accompanies the sequence (check with students regarding the pace, voice, and voice quality).

It is important not to clutter the page. Students are good at scanning. Most students glance at a new page, scan some text, and usually click on the first link that catches their attention or appears to be what they are looking for. Much of the rest of the information is redundant. In the Mestre (ibid.) study it was noted that when students went through the static web tutorial they quickly scanned the page, looking at the headers and images, and then attempted to do the exercises. When asked why they only scanned the page they said, "We're usually in a hurry," "We only want to get to the thing that will help us get the answer." Students learn to focus on "trigger words." Students from the Bowles-Terry et al. (2010) study also said that students view library tutorials in a utilitarian light and want to get the necessary information and move forward with the information-seeking process.

Chart 6.1 is an example of a piece of storyboarding created by Mestre, to help plan out the ERIC (Education Resources Information Center) database tutorial. These elements would also be included in the script as cues for what to do during the screencasting.

Chart 6.1

Storyboard planning example

Storyboard for ERIC database tutorial

Project: Part 1: Searching ERIC Tutorial: 1 of 3 (in the ERIC series)

Date: April 23 2011

Links from: http://www.library.illinois.edu/learn/ondemand/

Links to: ERIC tutorial 2; Ask a librarian ( http://www.library.illinois.edu/askus )

Navigation:
a.

Include a table of contents (create chapter markings) so they can jump to each section

b.

Navigation bar across the bottom.

Functionality/interactivity
a.

Includes a three-question quiz at the end

b.

Includes a hotspot to link out to "Ask a librarian" (at end of tutorial)

c.

Includes a hotspot to link to ERIC Tutorial 2 (after quiz).

Background: white background

Title clip: use the ERIC with puzzle

Color schemes: main titles in Green color # ____; subtitles in Blue color # ___; call-out color Blue color # ______

Font: text 36 point Verdana

Audio: use Audacity, volume at: ______ Do narration after capturing

Video: no video clips added in for this segment; use Camtasia to record screens according to script

Fade: 1-second fades

Stills: add in still of "Ask a librarian" at end, with a link to the "Ask a librarian" live widget

Highlighting features: highlight the following (in Yellow):
■

Online research resources

■

Article indexes and abstracts

■

Cambridge Scientific Abstracts

Box features (in Light Blue, width 4): occur with:

■

Search tools

■

Thesaurus

■

Browse thesaurus (box the search area)

Zoom in features: occur when showing:
■

Thesaurus option

■

Combine search option

Arrows: use Red, width 4

Call-out bubbles: use "filled rounded rectangle" and "rectangle call-out" and 28 point Veranda font. Occur at:
■

27 on timeline for 5 seconds (I'm searching community colleges OR two-year colleges OR associate degrees), Blue font, shaded border

■

1.36 on timeline for 5 seconds (see the RefWorks tutorial for more information)

Figure 6.1 shows an example provided from Usability Net for a hand-drawn storyboard. Usability Net is a project funded by the European Union to promote usability and user-centered design ( http://www.usabilitynet.org/home.htm ). This site provides clickable components of a methods table to dig deeper into examples. Storyboards work well when designing web pages to show how each page connects with the previous page and showing consistency in design elements. For screencasting, these elements should be decided upfront with notes placed in the script to alert the person recording the tutorial when to include features such as zooms, highlights, boxes, etc.

Figure 6.1. Storyboard example from Usability Net

Source: http://www.mcli.dist.maricopa.edu/authoring/studio/guidebook/images/ storyboard3.gif

Figure 6.2 is an example of a storyboard for branching that would take place depending upon the response to a question.

Figure 6.2. Storyboard with branching from The eLearning Coach

Source: http//theelearningcoach.com/downloadsVisual+Storyboard+1

The list below gives details of certain products that facilitate the storyboarding process; they include step-by-step templates for integrating features and design. There are many other freeware and commercial products available as well.

■

Atomic Learning's Free Video StoryBoard Pro (freeware): http://www.atomiclearning.com/storyboardpro .

■

Storyboard Depot from The eLearning Coach: http://theelearningcoach.com/resources/storyboard-depot/ .

■

StoryBoard Quick (PowerProduction Software to purchase) for film or video production: http://www.creationengine.com/html/p.lasso?p=10591 . A demo is available here: http://www.powerproduction.com/quick_mov.html .

Appendix 4 at the end of this book also includes a PDF document of the Camtasia guidelines used to create the screencasting tutorials at the University of Illinois. These guidelines include suggestions for the settings to be used for all aspects of the tutorial, including fonts, colors, call-outs, and production settings, so that tutorials can be consistently created across library units.

Read full chapter

URL:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9781843346883500068

A review of school-based instructional interventions for students with autism spectrum disorders

Wendy Machalicek , ... Mandy Rispoli , in Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 2008

Coleman-Martin et al. (2005) evaluated the NRA across three conditions (teacher instruction only, teacher instruction and computer-aided instruction, and computer-aided instruction only) to teach word identification (e.g., such words as shock, brave, slept) to a 12-year-old student. The student was enrolled in a classroom for students with moderate disabilities and he used both gestures and an AAC device to communicate. The NRA instruction involved a metacognitive strategy of saying words to oneself following a verbal model and teacher and/or computer-aided instruction to walk the student through the process. In the teacher instruction condition, the teacher provided verbal prompts ("… in your head, say this sound, mmm."). Computer-aided instruction consisted of a sequence of instructional slides that told the student how to say the words in their head ("… in your head say this sound, mmmm.") with a final slide presumed to be reinforcing (a colorful picture with a written praise statement). The teacher instruction plus computer aided instruction consisted of the teacher providing the prompts for the metacognitive strategy prior to computer instruction. The student performed equally well across all conditions, reaching a criterion of 80% of target words correctly produced over two consecutive sessions, but required fewer teaching sessions during computer-aided instruction.

Read full article

URL:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1750946707000591